Immune System Problems

Things That Can Go Wrong With the Immune System

Disorders of the immune system can be broken down into four main categories:

1. immunodeficiency disorders (primary or acquired)
2. autoimmune disorders (in which the body's own immune system attacks its own tissue as foreign matter)
3. allergic disorders (in which the immune system overreacts in response to an antigen)
4. cancers of the immune system

Immunodeficiency Disorders

Immunodeficiencies occur when a part of the immune system is not present or is not working properly. Sometimes a person is born with an immunodeficiency — these are called primary immunodeficiencies. (Although primary immunodeficiencies are conditions that a person is born with, symptoms of the disorder sometimes may not show up until later in life.) Immunodeficiencies can also be acquired through infection or produced by drugs. These are sometimes called secondary immunodeficiencies.

Immunodeficiencies can affect B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, or phagocytes. Some examples of primary immunodeficiencies that can affect kids and teens are:

• IgA deficiency is the most common immunodeficiency disorder. IgA is an immunoglobulin that is found primarily in the saliva and other body fluids that help guard the entrances to the body. IgA deficiency is a disorder in which the body doesn't produce enough of the antibody IgA. People with IgA deficiency tend to have allergies or get more colds and other respiratory infections, but the condition is usually not severe.
• Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) is also known as the "bubble boy disease" after a Texas boy with SCID who lived in a germ-free plastic bubble. SCID is a serious immune system disorder that occurs because of a lack of both B and T lymphocytes, which makes it almost impossible to fight infections.
• DiGeorge syndrome (thymic dysplasia), a birth defect in which children are born without a thymus gland, is an example of a primary T-lymphocyte disease. The thymus gland is where T lymphocytes normally mature.
• Chediak-Higashi syndrome and chronic granulomatous disease both involve the inability of the neutrophils to function normally as phagocytes.

Acquired immunodeficiencies usually develop after a person has a disease, although they can also be the result of malnutrition, burns, or other medical problems. Certain medicines also can cause problems with the functioning of the immune system. Secondary immunodeficiencies include:

• HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection/AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a disease that slowly and steadily destroys the immune system. It is caused by HIV, a virus which wipes out certain types of lymphocytes called T-helper cells. Without T-helper cells, the immune system is unable to defend the body against normally harmless organisms, which can cause life-threatening infections in people who have AIDS. Newborns can get HIV infection from their mothers while in the uterus, during the birth process, or during breastfeeding. People can get HIV infection by having unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person or from sharing contaminated needles for drugs, steroids, or tattoos.
• Immunodeficiencies caused by medications. Some medicines suppress the immune system. One of the drawbacks of chemotherapy treatment for cancer, for example, is that it not only attacks cancer cells, but other fast-growing, healthy cells, including those found in the bone marrow and other parts of the immune system. In addition, people with autoimmune disorders or who have had organ transplants may need to take immunosuppressant medications. These medicines can also reduce the immune system's ability to fight infections and can cause secondary immunodeficiency.

Autoimmune Disorders

In autoimmune disorders, the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's healthy organs and tissues as though they were foreign invaders. Autoimmune diseases include:

• Lupus is a chronic disease marked by muscle and joint pain and inflammation. The abnormal immune response may also involve attacks on the kidneys and other organs.
• Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis is a disease in which the body's immune system acts as though certain body parts such as the joints of the knee, hand, and foot are foreign tissue and attacks them.
• Scleroderma is a chronic autoimmune disease that can lead to inflammation and damage of the skin, joints, and internal organs.
• Ankylosing spondylitis is a disease that involves inflammation of the spine and joints, causing stiffness and pain.
• Juvenile dermatomyositis is a disorder marked by inflammation and damage of the skin and muscles.

Allergic Disorders

Allergic disorders occur when the immune system overreacts to exposure to antigens in the environment. The substances that provoke such attacks are called allergens. The immune response can cause symptoms such as swelling, watery eyes, and sneezing, and even a life-threatening reaction called anaphylaxis. Taking medications called antihistamines can relieve most symptoms. Allergic disorders include:

• Asthma, a respiratory disorder that can cause breathing problems, frequently involves an allergic response by the lungs. If the lungs are oversensitive to certain allergens (like pollen, molds, animal dander, or dust mites), it can trigger breathing tubes in the lungs to become narrowed, leading to reduced airflow and making it hard for a person to breathe.
• Eczema is an itchy rash also known as atopic dermatitis. Although atopic dermatitis is not necessarily caused by an allergic reaction, it more often occurs in kids and teens who have allergies, hay fever, or asthma or who have a family history of these conditions.
• Allergies of several types can occur in kids and teens. Environmental allergies (to dust mites, for example), seasonal allergies (such as hay fever), drug allergies (reactions to specific medications or drugs), food allergies (such as to nuts), and allergies to toxins (bee stings, for example) are the common conditions people usually refer to as allergies.

Cancers of the Immune System

Cancer occurs when cells grow out of control. This can also happen with the cells of the immune system. Lymphoma involves the lymphoid tissues and is one of the more common childhood cancers. Leukemia, which involves abnormal overgrowth of leukocytes, is the most common childhood cancer. With current medications most cases of both types of cancer in kids and teens are curable.

Although immune system disorders usually can't be prevented, you can help your child's immune system stay stronger and fight illnesses by staying informed about your child's condition and working closely with your doctor.

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Heart and Circulatory System Problems

Problems of the Heart and Circulatory System

Problems with the cardiovascular system are common — more than 64 million Americans have some type of cardiac problem. But cardiovascular problems don't just affect older people — many heart and circulatory system problems affect children and teens, too.

Heart and circulatory problems are grouped into two categories: congenital, which means the problems were present at birth, and acquired, which means that the problems developed some time during infancy, childhood, adolescence, or adulthood.

Congenital heart defects. Congenital heart defects are abnormalities in the heart's structure that are present at birth. Approximately 8 out of every 1,000 newborns have congenital heart defects ranging from mild to severe. These defects occur while the fetus is developing in the mother's uterus and it's not usually known why they occur. Some congenital heart defects are caused by genetic disorders, but most are not. What all congenital heart defects have in common, however, is that they involve abnormal or incomplete development of the heart.

A common sign of a congenital heart defect is a heart murmur — an abnormal sound (like a blowing or whooshing sound) that's heard when listening to the heart. Usually a heart murmur is detected by a doctor who's listening to the heart with a stethoscope during a routine exam. Murmurs are very common in children and can be caused by congenital heart defects or other heart conditions.

Arrhythmia. Cardiac arrhythmias, also called dysrhythmias or rhythm disorders, are abnormalities in the heart's rhythm. They may be caused by a congenital heart defect or they may be acquired later. An arrhythmia may cause the heart's rhythm to be irregular, abnormally fast, or abnormally slow. Arrhythmias can occur at any age and may be discovered during a routine physical examination. Depending on the type of rhythm disorder, an arrhythmia may be treated with medication, surgery, or pacemakers.

Cardiomyopathy. Cardiomyopathy is a chronic disease that causes the heart muscle (the myocardium) to become weakened. Usually, the disease first affects the lower chambers of the heart, the ventricles, and then progresses and damages the muscle cells and even the tissues surrounding the heart. In its most severe forms, this condition may lead to heart failure and even death. Cardiomyopathy is the #1 reason for heart transplants in children.

Coronary artery disease. The most common heart disorder in adults, coronary artery disease is caused by atherosclerosis. Deposits of fat, calcium, and dead cells, called atherosclerotic plaques, form on the inner walls of the coronary arteries (the blood vessels that supply the heart) and interfere with the smooth flow of blood. Blood flow to the heart muscle may even stop if a thrombus, or clot, forms in a coronary vessel, which may cause a heart attack. In a heart attack (or myocardial infarction), the heart muscle becomes damaged by lack of oxygen, and unless blood flow returns within minutes, muscle damage increases and the heart's ability to pump blood is compromised. If the clot can be dissolved within a few hours, damage to the heart can be reduced. Heart attacks are rare in children and teens.

Hyperlipidemia/hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol). Cholesterol is a waxy substance that's found in the body's cells, in the blood, and in some of the foods we eat. Having too much cholesterol in the blood, also known as hypercholesterolemia or hyperlipidemia, is a major risk factor for heart disease and can lead to a heart attack.

Cholesterol is carried in the bloodstream by lipoproteins. Two kinds — low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL) — are the most important. High levels of LDL cholesterol (the bad cholesterol) increase a person's risk for heart disease and stroke, whereas high levels of HDL cholesterol (the good cholesterol) can protect against these.

A blood test can indicate if someone's cholesterol is too high. A child's cholesterol level is borderline if it's 170 to 199 mg/dL, and it's considered high if it's above 200 mg/dL.

About 10% of teens between 12 and 19 have high cholesterol levels that put them at increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

High blood pressure (hypertension). Over time, high blood pressure can cause damage to the heart and arteries and other body organs. The symptoms of hypertension can include headache, nosebleeds, dizziness, and lightheadedness. Infants, kids, and teens can have high blood pressure, which may be caused by genetic factors, excess body weight, diet, lack of exercise, and diseases such as heart disease or kidney disease.

Kawasaki disease. Kawasaki disease (also known as mucocutaneous lymph node syndrome) affects the mucous membranes (the lining of the mouth and breathing passages), the skin, and the lymph nodes (part of the immune system). It can also lead to vasculitis, an inflammation of the blood vessels. This can affect all major arteries in the body — including the coronary arteries. It can also cause inflammation of the heart muscle, called myocarditis. When coronary arteries become inflamed, a child can develop aneurysms, which are weakened and bulging spots on the walls of arteries. This increases the risk of a blood clot forming in this weakened area, which can block the artery, possibly leading to a heart attack. In addition to the coronary arteries, the heart muscle, lining, valves, or the outer membrane that surrounds the heart can become inflamed. Arrhythmias or abnormal functioning of some heart valves can occur. Kawasaki disease has surpassed rheumatic fever as the leading cause of acquired heart disease in children in the United States.

Rheumatic heart disease. Usually the complication of an untreated strep throat infection, rheumatic fever can lead to permanent heart damage and even death. Most common in children between 5 and 15 years of age, it begins when antibodies the body produces to fight the strep infection begin to attack other parts of the body. They react to tissues in the heart valves as though they were the strep bacteria and cause the heart valves to thicken and scar. Inflammation and weakening of the heart muscle may also occur. Usually, when strep throat infections are promptly treated with antibiotics, this condition can be avoided.

Stroke. Strokes occur when the blood supply to the brain is cut off or when a blood vessel in the brain bursts and spills blood into an area of the brain, causing damage to brain cells. Children or infants who have experienced stroke may be suddenly numb or weak, especially on one side of the body, and they may experience a sudden severe headache, nausea or vomiting, and difficulty seeing, speaking, walking, or moving. During childhood, strokes are rare.

Getting plenty of exercise, eating a nutritious diet, maintaining a healthy weight, and getting regular medical checkups are the best ways to help keep the heart healthy and avoid long-term problems like high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and heart disease.

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Vision Problems

Some of the most common eye problems are refractive errors. These are the problems that eye doctors check for routinely in a vision test. Refraction means bending of light rays to focus the light coming from an image. Refractive errors are problems with the focusing of the eye, because of the way the eye is shaped, which causes the image you see to be blurred.

Refractive errors include:

• Astigmatism. In astigmatism, there's a problem with the curve of the cornea. This causes part of the eye's image to be blurry. Corrective lenses such as contact lenses or glasses can usually correct vision in people with astigmatism.
• Nearsightedness. Also called myopia or shortsightedness, nearsightedness occurs when the eye focuses the image of an object in front of the retina instead of directly on it. In most cases, people can't see well far away, but can see objects clearly close up. The condition tends to get somewhat worse through childhood and adolescence, but stabilizes in adulthood. People with this condition may need to wear glasses or contacts to correct their vision. Laser eye surgery is now commonly used in adults to correct nearsightedness permanently by changing the shape of the cornea. Laser surgery is not used in kids and teens because the eye may still be growing and the refractive error changing.
• Farsightedness. Also called hyperopia or longsightedness, farsightedness occurs when the incoming image is not focused on the retina, but behind it. This makes it difficult to see close objects clearly, even though far-off objects can be seen clearly. Glasses or contact lenses can correct this problem in kids and teens. Most adults develop a form of farsightedness called presbyopia as they get older.

Some of the other eye problems that can affect children and teens include:

Blindness. This is the loss of useful sight. Blindness can be temporary or permanent and it has many causes. Birth defects or damage to any portion of the eye, the optic nerve, or the area of the brain responsible for vision can lead to blindness. The visual impairment cannot be corrected with surgery or corrective lenses, and the condition can make it difficult to perform everyday activities. Diabetes, problems with the macula, and eye changes because of aging account for most blindness in the United States.

Cataracts. Some children are born with cataracts, a cloudiness of the eye's lenses that prevent images from being seen clearly or at all. But cataracts are much more prevalent in the elderly among whom surgery to remove cataracts and correct vision is common. In infants and young children, cataracts must be treated to prevent permanent problems with development of vision.

Color blindness. Color blindness is caused by problems in the pigments of the cones in the retina. Most people who are color-blind can see some colors. In most cases, someone who is color-blind confuses some colors with others, usually red and green. People can be born color-blind or they may develop the condition over time. The most common form of color blindness is an inherited condition that affects boys much more often than girls. Color blindness cannot be corrected.

Conjunctivitis. Conjunctivitis refers to inflammation (redness, pain, and swelling) of the conjunctiva. One type of conjunctivitis is called pinkeye, a common contagious infection in which the eyes become pinkish red and watery, and pus may form. Pinkeye is usually treated with eyedrops. Conjunctivitis may also occur due to allergies or from a scratch on the surface of the eye.

Dacryostenosis. Dacryostenosis is a blockage of the tear drainage system of the eye occurring in the lower eyelid. This is a fairly common problem in infants, but often improves with time.

Eye injuries. Injuries to the eye are one of the most common preventable causes of blindness. Eye injuries may be caused by irritants such as sand, dirt, or other foreign bodies on the eye's surface. Chemicals or foreign bodies that become embedded in the eye can also cause pain and loss of vision. Forceful blows to the eye can cause bleeding inside the eye and damage to the cornea, retina, and other important eye structures.

Glaucoma. One of the leading causes of blindness in the United States, glaucoma is a disorder that causes fluid pressure to build up inside the eye, potentially causing damage to the optic nerve. Although it can occur in infants and children, it is much more common among older adults. Unless detected early by routine screening tests, it usually goes undiagnosed until some vision is lost.

Macular degeneration is an eye disease that mainly affects older people. But sometimes infants and children can develop it, too. When someone has macular degeneration, the middle area of the retina becomes scarred. This causes eyesight to deteriorate over many years. The cause of macular degeneration is unknown in most cases, but it tends to run in families, which indicates that genes and heredity are involved.

Retinoblastoma. This is a cancerous tumor in the eye that usually appears in the first 5 years of life. There may be permanent vision loss, and the affected eye(s) may have to be removed.

Retinopathy of prematurity. Premature babies sometimes have damage to the blood vessels in the eye's retina, a condition known as retinopathy of prematurity, which can lead to severe vision loss in some cases.

Strabismus. A condition in which the eyes appear crossed, strabismus is usually caused by a defect in the balance of the pull exerted by the muscles that help the eyes stay straight and move together properly. Surgery on the eye muscles can help realign the eyes. Permanent vision loss in the less-used eye (amblyopia) can occur if the condition is not treated in early childhood.

Sty. A sty is an infection of one of the follicles from which the eyelashes grow. Sties are treated by applying warm compresses and using antibiotics.

Proper care of your child's eyes includes having periodic eye exams at routine office checkups and by an eye specialist according to the schedule recommended by your doctor. Signs that a very young child may be having vision trouble include constant eye rubbing, tearing or redness, and trouble following an object. Older kids may squint or sit too close to the TV. Kids who are having trouble seeing might also complain of headaches at the end of the day.

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Endocrine System Problems

Problems With the Endocrine System

Too much or too little of any hormone can be harmful to the body. For example, if the pituitary gland produces too much growth hormone, a child may grow excessively tall. If it produces too little, a child may be abnormally short.

Controlling the production of or replacing specific hormones can treat many endocrine disorders in children and adolescents, some of which include:

Adrenal insufficiency. This condition is characterized by decreased function of the adrenal cortex and the consequent underproduction of adrenal corticosteroid hormones. The symptoms of adrenal insufficiency may include weakness, fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea, dehydration, and skin changes. Doctors treat adrenal insufficiency by giving replacement corticosteroid hormones.

Cushing syndrome. Excessive amounts of glucocorticoid hormones in the body can lead to Cushing syndrome. In children, it most often results when a child takes large doses of synthetic corticosteroid drugs (such as prednisone) to treat autoimmune diseases such as lupus. If the condition is due to a tumor in the pituitary gland that produces excessive amounts of corticotropin and stimulates the adrenals to overproduce corticosteroids, it's known as Cushing disease. Symptoms may take years to develop and include obesity, growth failure, muscle weakness, easy bruising of the skin, acne, high blood pressure, and psychological changes. Depending on the specific cause, doctors may treat this condition with surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or drugs that block the production of hormones.

Type 1 diabetes. When the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin, type 1 diabetes (previously known as juvenile diabetes) occurs. Symptoms include excessive thirst, hunger, urination, and weight loss. In children and teens, the condition is usually an autoimmune disorder in which specific immune system cells and antibodies produced by the immune system attack and destroy the cells of the pancreas that produce insulin. The disease can cause long-term complications including kidney problems, nerve damage, blindness, and early coronary heart disease and stroke. To control their blood sugar levels and reduce the risk of developing diabetes complications, kids with this condition need regular injections of insulin.

Type 2 diabetes. Unlike type 1 diabetes, in which the body can't produce normal amounts of insulin, in type 2 diabetes the body is unable to respond to insulin normally. Children and teens with the condition tend to be overweight, and it is believed that excess body fat plays a role in the insulin resistance that characterizes the disease. In fact, the rising prevalence of this type of diabetes in kids has paralleled the dramatically increasing rates of obesity among kids in recent years. The symptoms and possible complications of type 2 diabetes are basically the same as those of type 1. Some kids and teens can control their blood sugar level with dietary changes, exercise, and oral medications, but many will need to take insulin injections like patients with type 1 diabetes.

Growth hormone problems. Too much growth hormone in children who are still growing will make their bones and other body parts grow excessively, resulting in gigantism. This rare condition is usually caused by a pituitary tumor and can be treated by removing the tumor. In contrast, when the pituitary gland fails to produce adequate amounts of growth hormone, a child's growth in height is impaired. Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) may also occur in kids with growth hormone deficiency, particularly in infants and young children with the condition.

Hyperthyroidism. Hyperthyroidism is a condition in which the levels of thyroid hormones in the blood are excessively high. Symptoms may include weight loss, nervousness, tremors, excessive sweating, increased heart rate and blood pressure, protruding eyes, and a swelling in the neck from an enlarged thyroid gland (goiter). In kids the condition is usually caused by Graves' disease, an autoimmune disorder in which specific antibodies produced by the immune system stimulate the thyroid gland to become overactive. The disease may be controlled with medications or by removal or destruction of the thyroid gland through surgery or radiation treatments.

Hypothyroidism. Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the levels of thyroid hormones in the blood are abnormally low. Thyroid hormone deficiency slows body processes and may lead to fatigue, a slow heart rate, dry skin, weight gain, constipation, and, in kids, slowing of growth and delayed puberty. Hashimoto's thyroiditis, which results from an autoimmune process that damages the thyroid and blocks thyroid hormone production, is the most common cause of hypothyroidism in kids. Infants can also be born with an absent or underdeveloped thyroid gland, resulting in hypothyroidism. It can be treated with oral thyroid hormone replacement.

Precocious puberty. Body changes associated with puberty may occur at an abnormally young age in some kids if the pituitary hormones that stimulate the gonads to produce sex hormones rise prematurely. An injectable medication is available that can suppress the secretion of these pituitary hormones (known as gonadotropins) and arrest the progression of sexual development in most of these children.

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Digestion Problems

Digestive System Problems

Nearly everyone has a digestive problem at one time or another. Some conditions, such as indigestion or mild diarrhea, are common; they result in mild discomfort and get better on their own or are easy to treat. Others, such as inflammatory bowel disease, can be long lasting or troublesome. A doctor who specializes in the digestive system is called a GI specialist or gastroenterologist.

Problems With the Esophagus

Problems affecting the esophagus may be congenital (present at birth) or noncongenital (developed after birth). Examples include:

• Congenital conditions. Tracheoesophageal fistula is a connection between the esophagus and the trachea (windpipe) where there shouldn't be one. In babies with esophageal atresia, the esophagus comes to a dead end instead of connecting to the stomach. Both conditions are usually detected soon after a baby is born — sometimes even before — and require surgery to repair.
• Noncongenital conditions. Esophagitis (inflammation of the esophagus) can be caused by infection, certain medications, or gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). With GERD, the esophageal sphincter (the valve that connects the esophagus with the stomach) doesn't work well and allows the acidic contents of the stomach to move backward up into the esophagus. GERD often can be corrected through lifestyle changes, such as dietary adjustments. Sometimes, though, it requires treatment with medication.

Problems With the Stomach and Intestines

Almost everyone has experienced diarrhea or constipation. With diarrhea, muscle contractions move the contents of the intestines along too quickly and there isn't enough time for water to be absorbed before the feces are pushed out of the body. Constipation is the opposite: The contents of the large intestines do not move along fast enough and waste materials stay in the large intestine so long that too much water is removed and the feces become hard.

Other common stomach and intestinal disorders include:

• Gastrointestinal infections can be caused by viruses, by bacteria (such as Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, or E. coli), or by intestinal parasites (such as amebiasis and giardiasis). Abdominal pain or cramps, diarrhea, and sometimes vomiting are the common symptoms of gastrointestinal infections. These usually go away on their own without medicines or other treatment.
• Appendicitis, an inflammation of the appendix, most often affects kids and teens between 11 and 20 years old, and requires surgery to correct. The classic symptoms of appendicitis are abdominal pain, fever, loss of appetite, and vomiting.
• Gastritis and peptic ulcers arise when a bacterium, Helicobacter pylori, or the chronic use of drugs or certain medications weakens the protective mucous coating of the stomach and duodenum, allowing acid to get through to the sensitive lining beneath. This can irritate and inflame the lining of the stomach (gastritis) or cause peptic ulcers, which are sores or holes in the lining of the stomach or the duodenum that cause pain or bleeding. Medications usually successfully treat these conditions.
• Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is chronic inflammation of the intestines that affects older kids, teens, and adults. There are two major types: ulcerative colitis, which usually affects just the rectum and the large intestine; and Crohn's disease, which can affect the whole gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to the anus as well as other parts of the body. They are treated with medications and, if necessary, intravenous (IV) feedings to provide nutrition. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove inflamed or damaged areas of the intestine.
• Celiac disease is a disorder in which the digestive system is damaged by the response of the immune system to a protein called gluten, which is found in wheat, rye, and barley and a wide range of foods, from breakfast cereal to pizza crust. People with celiac disease have difficulty digesting the nutrients from their food and may experience diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloating, exhaustion, and depression when they eat foods with gluten. Symptoms can be managed by following a gluten-free diet. Celiac disease runs in families and can become active after some sort of stress, such as surgery or a viral infection. A doctor can diagnose celiac disease with a blood test and by taking a biopsy of the small intestine.
• Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), a common intestinal disorder, affects the colon and may cause recurrent abdominal cramps, bloating, constipation, and diarrhea. There is no cure, but IBS symptoms may be treated by changing eating habits, reducing stress, and making lifestyle changes. A doctor may also prescribe medications to relieve diarrhea or constipation. No one test is used to diagnose IBS, but a doctor may identify it based on symptoms, medical history, and a physical exam.

Problems With the Pancreas, Liver, and Gallbladder

Conditions affecting the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder often affect the ability of these organs to produce enzymes and other substances that aid in digestion. Examples include:

• Cystic fibrosis is a chronic, inherited illness where the production of abnormally thick mucus blocks the ducts or passageways in the pancreas and prevents its digestive juices from entering the intestines, making it difficult to properly digest proteins and fats. This causes important nutrients to pass out of the body unused. To help manage their digestive problems, people with cystic fibrosis can take digestive enzymes and nutritional supplements.
• Hepatitis, a condition with many different causes, is when the liver becomes inflamed and may lose its ability to function. Viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis A, B, or C, is highly contagious. Mild cases of hepatitis A can be treated at home; however, serious cases involving liver damage may require hospitalization.
• The gallbladder can develop gallstones and become inflamed — a condition called cholecystitis. Although gallbladder conditions are uncommon in kids and teens, they can occur in those who have sickle cell anemia or are being treated with certain long-term medications.

Keeping Digestion on Track

The kinds and amounts of food a person eats and how the digestive system processes that food play key roles in maintaining good health. Eating a healthy diet is the best way to prevent common digestive problems.

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